Mr.Market

Benjamin Graham (/ɡræm/; May 8, 1894 – September 21, 1976) was an American professional investor also named as Benjamin Grossbaum born in London, England,[1] to Jewish parents.[2]

Benjamin Graham, considered as the Father of “Stock Investing” and Teacher ( Mentor ) of Warren Buffett, has formulated a mental strategy and instructed to follow. For successful investing it may be useful.

Graham's favorite allegory is that of Mr. Market, an obliging fellow who turns up every day at the shareholder's door offering to buy or sell his shares at a different price.

Let us imagine “ Mr.Market ” and our self are doing a business conjointly. It means he is our partner, co-share holder. Every days prices being told in the share market, can be considered as on behalf of our business rights, claiming prices by him.

Often, the price quoted by Mr. Market seems plausible, but sometimes it is ridiculous. The investor is free to either agree with his quoted price and trade with him, or ignore him completely.

Our friend each and everyday, he mentions the conjoint business stock prices offers. At the same time his stock prices he is capable to sell will also be kept in front off. Even though company and its activities being stable our friend Mr.Market, claiming prices will be varying day by day ( even for minutes also ) remains unstable. Friend is probably a fickle minded person.

Sometimes he may be anxious. During that time companies good future will alone be seen by him. During pleasant mentality times, or moments, he may offer any price to buy our stocks. He fears that we may steal the profits from the companies business. At any attempt he intends to acquire our stocks, is the prime concern for him.

In some other times, he may seems to be felt Dull and Tired. For the company , and the World a bad future only accomplishes , will be considered by him. Since, we may push our assets to him, in fear, he may offer very low prices for the stocks. Those stocks owned by him , will be attempted to pushed to us, to sell.

Another Magnificent character can be found. We even never care about him, he never minds it at all. Mr. Market doesn't mind this, and will be back the following day to quote another price.

The point of this anecdote is that the investor should not regard the whims of Mr. Market as a determining factor in the value of the shares the investor owns. He should profit from market folly rather than participate in it. The investor is advised to concentrate on the real life performance of his companies and receiving dividends, rather than be too concerned with Mr. Market's often irrational behavior.

Efficient Market Theory

You may have heard of something called the Efficient Market Theory. If you did, it was almost certainly in a negative context, some writer or blogger excoriating those egghead finance professors for confusing the world with their crazy and dismal theories. This is a rant mostly heard from the advocates of investing in individual stocks, but is also found occasionally in the arguments of those in favor of active funds over passive (index) funds and market timing over passive asset allocation.
Apparently, this poisonous heresy has been spread by overly educated academics near and wide for decades. They convince their innocent students that it is categorically impossible to make money picking stocks, that anybody who does anything other than buy an index fund is a fool. It’s a viewpoint that is not just wrong, it’s dismally pessimistic and, let’s face it, simply un-American.

The efficient market theory states that the stock market reacts very quickly to new information, so at any given time the market contains the sum of all investors’ views of the market.

What does this mean to the average investor? Imagine you are reading an article in the Wall Street Journal. Dell is going to release a new computer in three months that will blow away the competition. You think maybe tomorrow you’ll call your broker and buy Dell, because obviously the price will go up.

The efficient market theory states, in no uncertain terms, you are too late! If you bought Dell stock as soon as soon as you read the article, or even as soon as it was printed, you are still too late. A lot of more savvy investors and traders bought the stock before you, and drove the price up. It doesn’t matter that the new computer won’t be released for 3 more months. Whoever buys the stock first wins.

What does this mean to the savvy trader? Even if you have the fastest tools and the best information, you still have to work for it. Trading is a competition. No strategy will always work. That’s impossible, because in order for someone to win, someone else has to lose.

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the reader or listener's mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole. Some typical oxymorons are:

• a living death
• sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind
• a deafening silence
• bitter-sweet
• The Sounds of Silence (song title)
• make haste slowly
• he was conspicuous by his absence

Recently the efficient market theory has been misquoted a lot. The efficient market theory does not say that the market is always correct. It says that the market represents the sum of the information available and the choices made by traders and investors. Traders and investors can be wrong. Information can be wrong. The best opportunities come when the market is temporarily wrong. The smart traders will find the difference between the market value of a stock and the ideal value before the rest of the crowd does.

One successful strategy that many of our customers use is called “mean reversion.” This strategy is based on the idea that the market is not 100% efficient. Time after time, the market will overreact to bad news. Prices will move much further than they should. Then they will move back toward normal.

A MARKET EFFICIENCY STORY

An elderly economics professor was walking down a busy street with one of his energetic students to the local café for lunch. Along the way, as he was explaining the concept of market efficiency to his student, the professor stepped right on a wadded up $20 bill and continued to stroll on. The student, who was looking down in studious thought at the time, was amazed at his good fortune and stooped down to pick it up. As the student rushed to catch up with the professor, he asked the professor whether he had seen the $20 bill.

The professor quipped "My dear lad, haven't you been listening to anything I have been saying about efficient markets? Although I saw the $20, I knew my eyes must have been deceiving me. Efficient markets theory dictates that it couldn't possibly be there because if it had been, someone else would have already picked it up."

The story above is an old joke among economists. It highlights both the conclusions and possible folly of assuming the extreme case of efficient market theory. Most scholars believe (in one form or another) in efficient markets. Although there are several forms of what is referred to as the "market efficiency hypothesis," its basic premise is that all stock prices accurately reflect all historical and current information. This means that whenever you purchase a stock, you are getting the best price based on available information. If the stock you chose was truly undervalued, investors would have already been buying the stock and thus pushing the stock price up until it was considered accurately valued. The opposite occurs for overpriced stocks. In essence, the theory states that there are no $20 bills, or even $1 bills just lying around for you to pick up. When was the last time you found a $1 bill lying around? This is market efficiency at work.

In support of this theory, many studies have shown that picking stocks by throwing darts at the stock table is just as likely to earn you profits as listening to the "market experts."

EMH was conceived as a null hypothesis in the 1950s and 60s. On the slim chance that you are unfamiliar with the term, I will summarize. A null hypothesis is a reasonable, obvious, and often naive interpretation of data to explain what is going on. You invent it as the alternative to the new clever theory you are trying to test. “The Earth is flat” and “heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones” are examples of great null hypotheses from history. A key thing to remember about null hypotheses is that they do not need to make sense in the big picture, they exist only as simple explanations that can be disproven to justify more complex ones. The Earth is flat has a lot of issues as a theory, e.g. what happens at the edge and how the objects in the sky work, but it is largely consistent with ordinary daily experience.

EMH states that stock prices reflect all available information at any given point in time. Stock prices instantly change to reflect new information as it arrives and those changes will by definition be unpredictable and random, because anything that could have been anticipated would have already been baked into the previous price. As a result, you cannot make money picking stocks.

It’s not clear that when EMH was born any serious researcher believed it as a theory of how the real world worked. It was thought up as a straw man against which it could be proved that you could indeed make money picking stocks, particularly with some “technical” and “chartist” theories that were then popular and, with the advent of computers, could for the first time be tested methodically.

But when the professors used the computers to look at the data, EMH turned out to be very very hard to defeat with statistical significance. In fact, it would be decades before it would be done conclusively.

This simple empirical observation, that stock prices appear to be unpredictable and random and that it is (almost) impossible to demonstrate any way in which they are not random, had far-reaching and profound implications. The most important one with regard to our understanding of finance is that you can model the movement of stock prices as if they were random walks. Just about all the useful stuff to come out of 20th Century financial theory was based on this trick, including our understanding of how to diversify portfolios and value options and other derivatives.

But as useful as EMH is as an assumption, it is lousy as a grand theory of how the stock market, or other financial markets, work. Like the Flat Earth Theory, it collapses in on itself if you think about it too carefully. Any explanation of how EMH could be true has to start with lots of clever stock traders that collectively find the perfect, all information reflected, true price. As new information arrives, those traders instantly move the price appropriately. And how does that dynamic work? How do those traders wind up with the right price? There must be an economic reward given to the smart traders for getting the price right and a penalty for getting it wrong. In other words, it must be that some traders make money picking stocks, which violates EMH.

So even though they may appear to be random, for some traders some of the time, stock price movements are not actually random but are at least mildly predictable. To use a possibly strained sports analogy, the flurry of gestures the catcher makes tells the pitcher what to throw, but are presumably meaningless to the runner on second. To the runner, even though he knows the signals are meaningful to the pitcher, they can best be considered random noise.

Thoughtful people who understand the stock market don’t say that it can’t be beaten, they say it is very hard. So hard, in fact, that it is unwise for all but a few to even try. This got simplified by less thoughtful people as a belief that the market was perfectly efficient and that all market outperformance, even by Warren Buffet, was due to random chance.

The difference between stock price movements being actually random and might-as-well-be random may seem academic, but is not. Firstly, the arguments made by advocates of stock picking against the Efficient Market Theory should impress no one. Just because it makes no sense that beating the market is fundamentally impossible, it is not true that anybody can beat the market.

Secondly, while the evidence around EMH makes a good argument that an individual investor should not expect to successfully pick stocks, it does not follow that there do not exist professionals who can beat the market. Arguing, as many do, that investing in an active fund is pointless because all fund managers are the equivalent of monkeys throwing darts is specious. (On the other hand, the analogous argument that an individual investor is unlikely to be able to separate the monkeys from the geniuses, i.e. that picking mutual funds is no easier than picking stocks, has more than a little merit.)

And finally, it is worth observing that for many advocates of passive investing, their belief in the efficiency of markets is (appropriately) shallow and limited. It is quite common, for example, and I think John Bogle subscribes to this, to believe in equity index funds but to advocate very large allocations to equity as an asset class, in some cases approaching 100%. This is not consistent with a belief in efficient financial markets.

Allocating most of your money to stocks is itself an active decision that only makes sense if you believe that stocks as an asset class are cheaper than they should be. If you thought the markets were perfect then you would assume that all asset classes, stocks, bonds, real estate, gold, etc., were priced such that on a risk-adjusted basis they all had the same expected future return. Putting all or nearly all of your money in one class would then make no more sense than putting it all into a single stock. You would get no improvement in risk-adjusted expected return, since that is impossible, but would greatly increase the risk you were taking on.

That’s not an unreasonable argument, and one that is perfectly consistent with Efficient Market Theory as I understand it. And yet I’ve never heard it anywhere. Is it possible that this great and sinister theory isn’t quite as widespread as its detractors claim?

Foreign Institutional Investors ( FII )

Institutional investors are organizations which pool large sums of money and invest those sums in securities, real property and other investment assets. They can also include operating companies which decide to invest their profits to some degree in these types of assets.

Typical investors include banks, insurance companies, retirement or pension funds, hedge funds, investment advisors and mutual funds. Their role in the economy is to act as highly specialized investors on behalf of others. For instance, an ordinary person will have a pension from his employer. The employer gives that person's pension contributions to a fund. The fund will buy shares in a company, or some other financial product. Funds are useful because they will hold a broad portfolio of investments in many companies. This spreads risk, so if one company fails, it will be only a small part of the whole fund's investment.

An institutional investor can have some influence in the management of corporations because it will be entitled to exercise the voting rights in a company. Thus, it can actively engage in corporate governance. Furthermore, because institutional investors have the freedom to buy and sell shares, they can play a large part in which companies stay solvent, and which go under. Influencing the conduct of listed companies, and providing them with capital are all part of the job of investment management.

FII is defined as an institution organized outside of India for the purpose of making investments into the Indian securities market under the regulations prescribed by SEBI. Positive tidings about the Indian economy combined with a fast-growing market have made India an attractive destination for foreign institutional investors.

These investment proposals by the ‘FII s’ include “Overseas pension funds, foreign corporates, individuals, mutual funds, investment trust, asset management company, nominee company, bank, institutional portfolio manager, university funds, endowments, foundations, charitable trusts, charitable societies, a trustee or power of attorney holder incorporated or established outside India proposing to make proprietary investments or investments on behalf of a broad-based fund.

FIIs can invest their own funds as well as invest on behalf of their overseas clients registered as such with SEBI. These client accounts that the FII manages are known as ‘sub-accounts’. A domestic portfolio manager can also register itself as an FII to manage the. funds of sub-accounts

In order to act as a banker to the FIIs, the RBI has designated banks that are authorised to deal with them. The biggest source through which FIIs invest is the issuance of Participatory Notes (P-Notes), which are also known as Offshore Derivatives.

Insider Trading

Insider Trading has been all over the news lately. First it was Enron and WorldCom. Then even the apparently squeaky clean Martha Stewart got pulled in. So just what is Insider Trading? How can you avoid problems with it, even if you are not classified as an insider?

Insider trading isn’t fraud. In most cases those prosecuted never had contact with the alleged victims on the other side of their trades. Although the victims chose to trade without prompting, the legal issue is only whether the trade was based on inside information.
 
How it occurs ?

Insider trading occurs (1) when an insider to a company, such as an officer or someone who owns a large percentage of the company, trades the company's stock. This is legal and acceptable, as long as that person is not trading based upon non-public company information.

Insider trading also occurs (2) when anyone, including employees, trades using non-public company information. This is considered illegal.

The illegal kind of Insider Trading is the trading in a security (buying or selling a stock) based on material information that is not available to the general public. It is prohibited by the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) because it is unfair and would destroy the securities markets by destroying investor confidence.

The law bizarrely affects only one-half of the trading equation. People make money by not trading as well as trading. But it is virtually impossible to prove that someone chose not to buy or sell stock because of a legally improper tip. So hundreds, maybe thousands, of people get away with insider “not trading” every year. Yet it isn’t obvious that the operation of the financial markets is impaired in any way.

If there is a problem in the market about insider trading, it’s that the market is biased by imposing criminal sanctions on only one side of the transaction. Inside information should lead roughly equal numbers of people to buy, sell and do nothing. The criminal law encourages people to do nothing. Whatever the impact, it isn’t likely to be more efficient markets.

Insider-trading laws deny markets important information. The recent financial crisis was caused in large part by inadequate information. People didn’t know the true value of mortgage-backed securities, leading to a financial house of cards that crashed down on federal agencies, investment houses, commercial banks and average investors.

The distinction between public and non-public information is legally decisive but economically unimportant. Perversely, the insider-trading laws seek to prevent people from trading on the most accurate and up-to-date information. The law seeks to force everyone to make today’s decisions based on yesterday’s data. It’s a genuinely stupid thing to do.

The only plausible argument for ensuring that everyone trades on inadequate and outdated information is “fairness.” The Securities and Exchange Commission’s Enforcement Director, Robert Khuzami, says insider-trading prosecutions are aimed at restoring “the level playing field that is fundamental to our capital markets.”

That is, just because your brother-in-law works at the accounting firm, you shouldn’t be able to buy or sell based on his disclosure of a client company’s dire financial straits until everyone knows it.

But Wall Street is built on metaphorical hillsides. The market is suffused with this sort of unfairness. Professional investors make money because of asymmetries of information. Someone working on Wall Street is almost always going to be better versed on financial issues than a casual investor. People make careers picking up hints and suggestions to use in trading.

However unfair it might seem to trade on inside information, it is unfair to no particular person.

Unless you committed fraud as part of the transaction, the person who bought your shares or sold his did so because he wanted to do so based on his information. Your “inside” information had no impact on his decision, especially in the impersonal markets through which most security transactions occur.

Acting on new information moves the market toward the right or “honest” price, as economist Donald J. Boudreaux puts it. Prosecuting people for insider trading slows the price-adjustment process. That means the price shock when the relevant news hits the market will be more abrupt and the losses will be greater for some people.

In some insider-trading cases there is a genuine victim: individuals or companies whose proprietary information was improperly disclosed. That should be punished, but as a civil offense based on the relevant contractual or fiduciary relationship. This kind of disclosure shouldn’t be of concern to the feds, let alone be an offense serious enough to justify wiretaps and mass arrests.

Yet the SEC employs sophisticated computer software to identify a few “suspicious” trades out of hundreds of millions of transactions. Agency enforcement chief Khuzami wants greater access to grand-jury information and greater power to pressure defendants to turn in their confederates.

Insider trading shouldn’t be a crime. There typically is no victim. To the contrary, most of us benefit when prices move more rapidly to the right level.

Unfortunately, prosecutors, regulators and politicians alike periodically demonize insider trading to justify their offices and budgets. But there is no reason to punish investors who trade on accurate information. In fact, that is precisely what the financial markets should encourage.

An Insider

A company insider is someone who has access to the important information about a company that affects its stock price or might influence investors decisions. This is called material information.

The company executives obviously have material information. The Vice President of Sales, for example, knows how much the company has sold and whether it will meet the estimates it has provided to investors. Others within the company also have material information. The accountant who prepares the sales forecast spreadsheet and the administrative assistant who types up the press release also are insiders.

A public company, if it is smart, limits the number of people who have access to material information and, therefore, are considered insiders. This is done for a couple of reasons. First, they want to limit the likelihood that anyone will "leak" the information. Second, being an insider means being subject to severe limits on when you can trade in the company stock, usually only the middle month of each quarter.

The company's senior management are insiders. So are some of the financial analysts. The top sales people usually also are insiders, although a regional sales manager who only sees his or her own region's results may not be one. The individuals in Investor Relations and/or Public Relations who prepare the public announcements also are insiders.

If the company is developing a new product that could be a big seller, the key people in the Research & Development team would also be considered insiders, provided the information they have is material, as defined above.

Other individuals who are not employees, but with whom the company needs to share material information, are also insiders. This list could include brokers, bankers, lawyers, etc.

Not An Insider

So does that mean you are not an insider unless you are on the company's management team, financial or development teams, or someone hired to handle the material information? In a word, "No".

The SEC includes in its definition of insiders those who have "temporary" or "constructive" access to the material information. If the President of a company tells you that the company's best hope for a breakthrough product isn't going to get regulatory approval, you are now every bit as much an insider as he is, with respect to that information. It is illegal for him to trade based on that knowledge before it becomes public knowledge. It is equally illegal for you to do so because you are now a "temporary insider". This remains true regardless of how many times the information is passed. If the president tells his barber, who tells her baby sitter, who tells her doctor, who tells you, the barber, baby sitter, doctor and you are all "temporary insiders".

Anyone who has material information is prohibited from trading, based on that knowledge, until the information is available to the general public. The US Supreme Court ruled recently, that this even applies to someone with no ties to the company. Possession of material information makes you an insider, even if you stole the information.

Employees Stock Option Plan

ESOP means Employee Stock Options. As the term signifies, ESOP is about ‘options’. Employee Stock Options or ESOP are generally given by most of the big companies in India, especially IT companies which are listed outside India to their employees

ESOP’s are Employee Stock Option Plans under which employees receive the right to purchase a certain number of shares in the company at a predetermined price, as a reward for their performance and also as motivation for employees to keep increasing their performance. Employees typically have to wait for a certain duration known as vesting period before they can exercise the right to purchase the shares. The main aim of giving such a plan to its employees is to give shares of the company to its employees at a discounted price to the market price at the time of exercise. Many companies (especially in the startup phase) have now started giving Employee Stock Options as this is beneficial to both the employer as well as the employee. ... read more on yourstory.com

If the market price of the stock is above the procurement price, the employee stands to gain by selling it off immediately. If however the price is below the agreed price level, the employee has the option to set aside his option and not exercise it.

ESOPs are nothing but “OPTIONS”, which are also in stock market in India (remember Future & Options?)

Let me tell you what Stock Options are in general. If a person has a Stock Option, he actually has a right to BUY a stock in future at a pre-decided price agreed at the time of giving those stock options. So in future whatever is the market price does not matter, you always have an option to buy it at the price which was agreed upon. In this case if market price of the stock is above the pre-decided price, then you can just exercise your options of buying the stock and instantly you will be in profit. If however, the current market price is less than the pre-decided price, then you choose not to exercise the stock option at all and nothing happens.

Let me give you an example. Let’s say that an employee joins a company on 1st Jan 2013. His company gives him 500 ESOPs with vesting period of 3 yrs and at the vesting price of Rs 200. What this means is that his vesting date is 1st Jan 2016 (after 3 yrs) , On that date, he has a OPTION to buy 500 stocks of the company at Rs 200 if he wishes. Now lets say on 1st Jan 2016 …

Case 1 – The stock price is Rs 800

In this case, the employee can exercise his option and he can get 500 stocks at only Rs 200 . At this moment, the employee will make a clean profit of Rs 600 each shares and a cool Rs 3,00,000 . Note that he does not have to pay anything here, when he exercises his option, he will automatically get his profit without putting anything from his pocket. It makes sense to exercise his option in this case, because vesting price is less than market price.

Case 2 – The stock price is Rs 130

In this case, it does not make any sense to exercise, because you will be in loss, because the price you have to pay is less than market price, so you let this option go.

Note : In case of stock options, you can never make any loss, it will always be some profit only.

Red Herring prospectus

The term red herring originates from the tradition whereby young hunting dogs in Britain were trained to follow a scent with the use of a "red" (salted and smoked) herring (see kipper). This pungent fish would be dragged across a trail until the puppy learned to follow the scent.

The reason it is called a red herring is due to a disclosure statement printed in red ink on the cover which explicitly states that the issuing company is not attempting to sell its shares. e.g. "A Registration Statement relating to these securities has been filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission but has not yet become effective. Information contained herein is subject to completion or amendment. These securities may not be sold nor may offers to buy be accepted prior to the time the Registration Statement becomes effective."

When a company decides to go public the company appoints underwriters and registrars of issue, it first involve one or more investment banks known as underwriters. The company and the investment bank first discuss some aspects like the amount of money a company will raise, the type of securities to be issued and all the details in the underwriting agreement. After the company secures an underwriter, it files a draft offer prospectus SEBI for review. 

This document contains information about the offering and company’s information like financial statements, management background, legal issues (if any), use of proceeds and risk factors. Once the draft document cleared by SEBI, it becomes offer document. Offer document is then submitted to registrar of the issue and stock exchange. Once offer document gets clearance from stock exchange, Issuer company makes it available to the public. The issue prospectus is now called as ‘Red Herring Prospectus’.

It means a prospectus which does not have complete details as regards the price at which the securities are being offered and the quantity of securities. When the offer of securities gets closed, then the company has to file a final prospectus stating therein the total capital or quantity of securities raised and the price of the securities or any other details which were not given in the red-herring prospectus. This final prospectus, in case of a listed public company, is necessary to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and the Registrar of Companies but if the company is not a listed one then the company has to file the final prospectus only with the Registrar of companies.

Red Herring Prospectus is a prospectus which does not have details of either price or number of shares being offered or the amount of issue. This means that in case price is not disclosed, the number of shares and the upper and lower price bands are disclosed.

On the other hand, an issuer can state the issue size and the number of shares are determined later. An RHP for and FPO can be filed with the RoC without the price band and the issuer, in such a case will notify the floor price or a price band by way of an advertisement one day prior to the opening of the issue. In the case of book-built issues, it is a process of price discovery and the price cannot be determined until the bidding process is completed.

Hence, such details are not shown in the Red Herring prospectus filed with ROC. Only on completion of the bidding process, the details of the final price are included in the offer document. The offer document filed thereafter with ROC is called a prospectus.

Moat of an Indian Stock

The moat was used as a defence mechanism for castles. Usually, they were filled with water to reduce the risk of fires and create a barrier for horses and their riders. The moats were created very deep, which made them harder to cross.

Most are familiar with the sight of a moat, traditionally dug around castles, and frequently filled with water. When the moat was first employed, it was meant to provide an additional defense of castles, towns, or large installments of people. A water filled moat made extremely difficult to storm a castle and or gain access to the walls of a fortress. Attacking armies could not simply climb the walls, and attempt to bring them down, because the moat proved a formidable obstruction. Further, attempts to fill in the moat or provide a crossing was often met with a volley of arrows, to discourage such attempts.

During the early Middle Ages, a moat might not be filled with water. It was still a trench deep enough to render it difficult for attackers to breach the walls of a building. A moat not filled with water is a dry moat. Later, most moats were filled with water. However, they were not, as some suppose, filled with alligators or sharks. It would have been virtually impossible to keep sharks alive in moat conditions; it’s very hard to keep them living even in today’s aquariums. Keeping alligators would also have proven impractical.

Most early versions of the moat did not have drawbridges, as one most often thinks. They did have bridges that could be removed easily at the approach of an enemy. In most cases, drawbridges were not employed until the late Middle Ages.

Though we commonly think of the moat in association with European Castles, Medieval Japan and China had impressive moat systems guarding cities and castles. Some Japanese cities would have not one but several moats. Some buildings might be built between some of the moats, but the vital parts of the city could be protected by as many as three moats. Sometimes these moats were the dry moat variety. Today, a few moats remain, like the one surrounding the Japanese Imperial Palace.

Some Native American tribes also built moats around central living areas, at least as far back as the 16th century. These provided some protection against raiding tribes or raiding Europeans. However, the introduction of the rifle to American Indians did render some moats useless, unless they were very wide.

Trenches dug during many wars work on the principal of the moat, though these are dry moats. Even today, a military force may dig large trenches to slow down an enemy, make motor transport impossible, or to keep tanks from crossing. A moat or trench can also be a useful place to hide during long battles.

Moats also frequently are used in zoos to keep animals in. These normally span a large, unjumpable distance, and are fairly deep. Fans of the computer game Zoo Tycoon, know digging a moat around dinosaur installments is an excellent way to keep large predators from escaping and eating the scientists.

ITC's low-tax cigarette launch has helped boost margins.
 
Investment Thesis

ITC, India’s largest cigarette manufacturer by revenue, has garnered leading market share through its popular brands. It's not without its share of challenges, which include competitive pressures from cheaper substitutes such as chewing tobacco and leaf-rolled tobacco, and the potential for further government intervention (like the passage of higher taxes). Even so, ITC has defended its turf for several years by investing in product innovation, and in marketing its core brands. In addition, ITC has also recently expanded its product set to include lower-priced products (which are subject to a lower tax rate) to expand its customer reach. This has allowed it to post solid sales growth and expand operating margins in its cigarette business, despite rising taxes. We believe ITC will continue to hold a dominant position in the Indian cigarette market for over a decade, and we think Indian smokers will trade up to more premium brands as the prevalence of smoking increases (unlike in developed economies, where smoking is declining).

We believe ITC Limited enjoys a narrow economic moat, owing to its brand strength, pricing power, and the addictive nature of its core product. Large competitors, including Godfrey Philips and VST Industries, combined, hold approximately 20% share of the Indian cigarette market. Less than 5% of the total market by value, but 48% by volume, is served by over 300 unorganized cigarette and leaf-rolled tobacco manufacturers, which pose a low-price substitute to branded cigarettes. By launching branded products at lower price points, ITC has been able to effectively compete with these unbranded tobacco producers, and improve its market share over time.

ITC holds a greater-than-majority share of India's organized cigarette market, and has been able to raise prices while maintaining volume growth. Given that most smokers remain brand loyal for a long time, and are addicted not only to smoking but also to the taste of their particular brand, we believe that ITC has a narrow economic moat and will sustain its leadership in the Indian cigarette market, despite competitive and regulatory pressures.
 
Risk

The major risks facing ITC stem from potential changes in government regulations related to taxation, manufacturing licenses, and advertising or distribution bans. More specifically, if the government drastically increases the excise tax rate on cigarettes (similar to past actions), the company's production volumes and profitability could suffer. Apart from regulatory risks, we also believe there is a risk that ITC management may expand further into less profitable businesses--and away from its core competencies in cigarettes--which would not be in the best interest of its shareholders. Overall, we rate ITC as having medium uncertainty, reflecting that the firm derives more than half of its sales from the cigarette business, which in itself is a non-cyclical business that operates with minimal financial leverage.
 
Company Profile

ITC Limited is the largest cigarette manufacturer by revenue in India, with more than INR 300 billion in annual revenues and only 10% of its sales coming from outside India. ITC’s major business segments include cigarettes (56.2% of net sales), consumer products (14.6%), agricultural produce (14.9%), paper-related products (9.3%), hotels (2.4%) and other (2.6%). The company started as a subsidiary of Imperial Tobacco IMT in 1910, but today is 31% owned by the global cigarette giant, British American Tobacco BTI.

Beta

Beta is a numeric value that measures the fluctuations of a stock to changes in the overall stock market. A measure of a security's or portfolio's volatility. It also measures the responsiveness of a stock's price to changes in the overall stock market.

The degree to which different portfolios are affected by these systematic risks as compared to the effect on the market as a whole, is different and is measured by Beta. To put it differently, the systematic risks of various securities differ due to their relationships with the market. The Beta factor describes the movement in a stock's or a portfolio's returns in relation to that of the market returns. For all practical purposes, the market returns are measured by the returns on the index (Nifty, Mid-cap etc.), since the index is a good reflector of the market.

Beta is a measure of an investment's relative volatility. The higher the beta, the more sharply the value of the investment can be expected to fluctuate in relation to a market index. Beta is calculated by using regression analysis; one should think of beta as the tendency of a security's returns to respond to swings in the market.

A beta of 1 indicates that the price of a security or portfolio will move in tandem with the market, or further can be termed as neither more nor less volatile or risky than the wider market. A beta of more than 1 indicates greater volatility and a beta of less than 1 indicates less volatile than the market.

Beta is an important component of the Capital Asset Pricing Model, which attempts to use volatility and risk to estimate expected returns.

Risk is an important consideration in holding any portfolio. The risk in holding securities is generally associated with the possibility that realised returns will be less than the returns expected.

Risks can be classified as Systematic risks and Unsystematic risks.

• Unsystematic risks:
  These are risks that are unique to a firm or industry. Factors such as management capability, consumer preferences, labour, etc. contribute to unsystematic risks. Unsystematic risks are controllable by nature and can be considerably reduced by sufficiently diversifying one's portfolio. 
• Systematic risks:
  These are risks associated with the economic, political, sociological and other macro-level changes. They affect the entire market as a whole and cannot be controlled or eliminated merely by diversifying one's portfolio.

For example, if a stock's beta is 1.2, theoretically, it's 20% more volatile than the market. Many utilities stocks have a beta less than 1. Conversely, most high-flying tech stocks have a beta greater than 1, offering a chance for higher returns but with far greater risk.

On comparison of the benchmark index for e.g. NSE Nifty to a particular stock returns, a pattern develops that shows the stock's openness to the market risk. This helps the investor to decide whether he wants to go for the riskier stock that is highly correlated with the market (beta above 1), or with a less volatile one (beta below 1).

Boston Matrix of Stocks

BCG Matrix (Boston Consulting Group Matrix)

Within the world of product management and strategic planning, few strategies are as well recognized and appreciated as that of the Boston Matrix, which comes from the world-renowned Boston Consulting Group. 

A BCG matrix, also known as a Boston matrix or growth-share matrix, helps organizations figure out which areas of their business deserve more resources and investment. 

The “BCG matrix” or Portfolio Analysis is a portfolio planning model which had been created by Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1968 to help corporations with analyzing their business units or product lines. 

The matrix framework categorizes products within a company's portfolio according to each product's growth rate, market share, and positive or negative cash flow. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in marketing, product, strategic management, and portfolio analysis. By using positive cash flows, a company can capitalize on growth opportunities.

The matrix is recognized as the preeminent tool for classifying individual product lines within a company’s entire product portfolio, and for outlining the marketing strategies these companies must use to maximize their products’ returns.

"The payoff for leadership [in market share] is very high indeed, if it is achieved early and maintained until growth slows," Boston Consulting Group's Bruce Henderson told clients. "Investment in market share during the growth phase can be very attractive, if you have the cash. Growth in market is compounded by growth in share. Increases in share increase the profit margin...The return on investment is enormous." 

Often referred to as simply the BCG Matrix, its purpose isn’t merely to identify a company’s strongest product lines, but also to provide guidance as to 1) which product line the company should prioritize, 2) which product line the company should retain, 3) which product line it should kill, and finally, 4) which product line needs further definition and analysis. So, how does the BCG Matrix help define these four product classes? More importantly, how can your company use the BCG Matrix? 

A high-growth product is for example a new one that we are trying to get to some market. It takes some effort and resources to market it, to build distribution channels, and to build sales infrastructure, but it is a product that is expected to bring the gold in the future.

A low-growth product is for example an established product known by the market. Characteristics of this product do not change much, customers know what they are getting, and the price does not change much either. This product has only limited budget for marketing. There is the milking cow that brings in the constant flow of cash. An example of this product would be regular Colgate toothpaste.

But the question is, how do we exactly find out what phase our product is in, and how do we classify what we sell? Furthermore, we also ask, where does each of our products fit into our product mix ? Should we promote one product more than the other one? The BCG matrix can help with this.

The BCG matrix reaches further behind product mix. Knowing what we are selling helps managers to make decisions about what priorities to assign to not only products but also company departments and business units.

The growth-share matrix helps organizations assess its companies and business units on two levels. The first is its level of growth within the market, while the second measures its market share relative to the competition within its industry.

It is based on the observation that the company’s business and to further analyze its assets, the matrix divides the business units in four different categories on the basis of their Market growth Rate (MGR) & Relative Market Shares (RMS).

Stars

The business units or products that have the best market shares and generate the most cash are considered stars. However, because of their high growth rate, stars also consume large amounts cash. This generally results in the same amount of money coming in that is going out.

Stars are units with a high market share in a fast-growing industry. Stars can eventually become cash cows if they sustain their success until a time that the market growth rate declines.

The hope is that stars become the next cash cows. Sustaining the business unit's market leadership may require extra cash, but this is worthwhile if that's what it takes for the unit to remain a leader. When growth slows, stars become cash cows if they have been able to maintain their category leadership, or they move from brief stardom to dogdom.

Strategic options for stars include:

• Integration – forward, backward and horizontal
• Market penetration
• Market development
• Product development
• Joint ventures

As a particular industry matures and its growth slows, all business units become either cash cows or dogs. The natural cycle for most business units is that they start as question marks, and then turn into stars. Eventually the market stops growing thus the business unit becomes a cash cow. At the end of the cycle the cash cow turns into a dog.

The overall goal of this ranking was to help corporate analysts decide which of their business units to fund, and how much; and which units to sell. Managers were supposed to gain perspective from this analysis that allowed them to plan with confidence to use money generated by the cash cows to fund the stars and, possibly, the question marks. As the BCG stated in 1970:

Only a diversified company with a balanced portfolio can use its strengths to truly capitalize on its growth opportunities. The balanced portfolio has:

• Stars whose high share and high growth assure the future;
• Cash cows that supply funds for that future growth; and
• Question marks to be converted into stars with the added funds.

Cash cows

Cash cows are the leader in the marketplace and generate more cash than they consume. As leaders in a mature market, cash cows exhibit a return on assets that is greater than the market growth rate – so they generate more cash than they consume. These units should be ‘milked’ extracting the profits and investing as little as possible.

They generate the abundant cash required to turn question marks into market leaders. These are business units or products that have a high market share, but a low growth prospects. 

Cash cows are units with high market share in a slow-growing industry. These units typically generate cash in excess of the amount of cash needed to maintain the business. They consume minimum of company resources They are regarded as staid and boring, in a "mature" market, and every corporation would be thrilled to own as many as possible.

According to NetMBA, cash cows provide the cash required to turn question marks into market leaders, to cover the administrative costs of the company, to fund research and development, to service the corporate debt, and to pay dividends to shareholders.

It is desirable to maintain the strong position as long as possible and strategic options include:

• Product development
• Concentric diversification
• If the position weakens as a result of loss of market share or

Market contraction then options would include:

• Retrenchment (or even divestment)

Dogs

Business units or products that are dogs are those have both a low market share and a low growth rate and neither generates nor consumes a large amount of cash.

They don't earn a lot of cash, nor do they consume a lot. Most likely these aspects of a business are making little, if any money. Dogs are generally considered cash traps because businesses have money tied up in them, even though they are bringing back basically nothing in return. These business units are prime candidates for divestiture.

Dogs are more charitably called pets, are units with low market share in a mature, slow-growing industry. These units typically "break even", generating barely enough cash to maintain the business's market share. Though owning a break-even unit provides the social benefit of providing jobs and possible synergies that assist other business units, from an accounting point of view such a unit is worthless, not generating cash for the company. A company must avoid the business than can be categorized as dogs.

Strategic options would include:

• Retrenchment (if it is believed that it could be revitalised)
• Liquidation
• Divestment (if you can find someone to buy!

Question marks

Question mark, are characterised by rapid growth and thus consumes large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do not generate much cash. The result is large net cash consumption but bringing little back in return They are also known as problem child or losing money.

A question mark has the potential to gain high market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows.

However, if the question mark does not succeed in becoming the market leader, then after perhaps years of cash consumption it will degenerate into a dog when the market growth declines.

According to NetMBA, question marks must be analyzed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment required to grow their market share.

Strategic options for question marks include:

• Market penetration
• Market development
• Product development
• Which are all intensive strategies or divestment.

Arbitrage

Arbitrage is a trading strategy whereby a trader sells a security in one market and buys the same security in another market. Arbitrage is a term used to describe the purchase of a product which is then immediately sold to make a profit.

Arbitrage is popular in the stock market or as a means to make profit from goods being sold at differing prices in varying markets. A person who uses arbitrage is called an arbitrageur.

The person who conducts and takes advantage of arbitrage in stocks, commodities, interest rate bonds, derivative products, forex is know as an arbitrageur.

Arbitrage refers to the opportunity of taking advantage between the price difference between two different markets for that same stock or commodity.

Arbitrage is described as risk free because participants are not speculating on market movements. Instead, they bet on the mis-pricing of a share/asset that has happened between to related markets.

It is a highly technical field. Market’s mis-pricing is taken advantage by traders to make risk free gains.

Market arbitrageurs assume the risk that the price of a security in the offsetting market may rise unexpectedly and result in a loss. In theory, market arbitrage opportunities should only exist for a short time because security prices adjust according to forces of supply and demand.

Primarily, large institutional investors and hedge funds are the ones capable of profiting from market arbitrage opportunities. The spread between unequally priced securities is usually only a few cents, so very large amounts of capital are required in order to make substantial profits.

In simple terms one can understand by an example of a commodity selling in one market at price x and the same commodity selling in another market at price x + y. Now this y, is the difference between the two markets is the arbitrage available to the trader. The trade is carried simultaneously at both the markets so theoretically there is no risk. (This arbitrage should not be confused with the word arbitration, as arbitration is referred to solving of dispute between two or more parties. )

Arbitrage opportunities exists between different markets because there are different kind of players in the market, some might be speculators, others jobbers, some market-markets, and some might be arbitrageurs.

In India there are a good amount of Arbitrage opportunities between NCDEX, MCX in commodities.

In the Indian Stock Market, there are a good amount of Arbitrage opportunities between NSE, Cash and Future market and BSE, Cash and Future market.     

Arbitrage Examples

• Arbitrage exists in sports betting. When bookmakers offer various odds it opens the opportunity for betters to spread their cash out among different bookmakers in order take the best odds on each and cover any possible win or lose circumstance. This tactic often results in a small profit, but can be much more at times.

• Exchange-traded funds, traded in the stock market, are also a means for an arbitrageur to make a profit. Participants in exchange-traded funds exchange shares in underlying securities as well as in the fund. This is different than the sale of other mutual funds since it does not promote shares being bought or sold with the fund sponsor. Prices are set by demand; and, when a drastic premium of the assets occurs, the underlying securities can be bought, converted and then sold in the open market. Similarly, when a drastic discount exists, the securities will be sold.

• Supposing a stock on the NYSE is not in line with the stock's corresponding futures contract on OCX. The more inexpensive stock or contract can be purchased and then sold at a higher price on the other market.

• Hedge funds can also use arbitrage to make a profit. Instead of purchasing and selling the same asset, a hedge fund might purchase and sell different derivatives, assets and securities that have similar characteristics. This practice lets the hedge fund "hedge" any big price differences between the two assets. 

• The term arbitrage is also utilized by Google to describe those advertisers whose sites are filled with a lot of advertisements. They are banned from advertising on Google since the advertisers will make more money just from hosting the ads than Google would make from a user clicking only once. 

In summary, arbitrage basically means the exchanging of one thing for another to take advantage of price differences in two markets, hence earning a profit.

In most of the transactions of Arbitrage in stocks and commodities markets, the traders tries to square up the transaction by reversing both his trades and he pockets the difference in this way.

In any transaction, 100% risk can never be removed but the risk is highly reduced in an arbitrage transaction because generally at the end of the settlement, the spot and the future price have to converge and that is when an arbitrageur can quit his positions without any loss.

What is "Depression"

The Great Depression didn’t happen overnight, It was caused by a whole bunch of factors including deflation where money is not worth as much as it used to be, A decline in trade this is important because if no one is buying our goods then we cannot make money.

The Great Depression of 1929 to the late 1930s was the largest economic downturn in the history of the modern world. Although capitalism's boom and bust cycle has been producing a bust roughly every decade or so since the early 19th century, this was the worst.

The Great Depression was an economic collapse that began in the United States in 1929 and spread across the globe, lasting for much of the 1930s. During the Great Depression, millions of Americans lost almost everything they had: their jobs, as the economy contracted; their investments, as the stock market plunged; and their savings, as bank after bank failed.

The Great Depression was the most severe economic crisis in U.S. history. And even before it had ended, journalists, historians, and especially economists were trying to put together the pieces to figure out what exactly had caused it.

Today, more than three-quarters of a century after the Great Depression began, its causes are still the subject of much debate.

The term depression is usually defined now simply as an economic downturn that is longer lasting and more severe than the more frequently occurring recessions. Sometimes, in order to define the term more formally, a depression is said to begin when GDP declines more than 10% from the most recent economic peak. By this criterion, the last two real depressions in the United States occurred:

•  From 1929 to 1933—the Great Depression—where US GDP declined by nearly 33%   and unemployment rose to 25%. 
•  In 1937-38, where GDP declined by more than 18% and unemployment reached 19%.

By contrast, US GDP declined at most 5% in the severe recession of 1973-75.

In general, periods of economic depression are characterized by greatly reduced GDP, as well as severely high measures of unemployment, foreclosures, business closures, and greatly reduced wholesale and retail sales activity.

Define "Boom Market"

A boom refers to a rising financial market. Another term for boom would be a bull market. Period that follows recovery phase in a standard economic cycle. A boom is characterized by an economy working at full or near-full capacity, strong consumer demand, low rate of unemployment, and a rising stockmarket, usually accompanied by rapidly increasing consumer prices (inflation).

Although the stock market has the reputation of being a risky investment, it did not appear that way in the 1920s. With the mood of the country exuberant, the stock market seemed an infallible investment in the future.

During a stock market boom the majority of stocks rise in price and there is often a euphoric feeling about the market. A boom market does not necessarily refer to the stock market as a whole. As more people invested in the stock market, stock prices began to rise. This was first noticeable in 1925. Stock prices then bobbed up and down throughout 1925 and 1926, followed by a strong upward trend in 1927. The strong bull market (when prices are rising in the stock market) enticed even more people to invest. And by 1928, a stock market boom had begun.

The stock market boom changed the way investors viewed the stock market. No longer was the stock market for long-term investment. Rather, in 1928, the stock market had become a place where everyday people truly believed that they could become rich. Interest in the stock market reached a fevered pitch. Stocks had become the talk of every town. Discussions about stocks could be heard everywhere, from parties to barber shops. As newspapers reported stories of ordinary people - like chauffeurs, maids, and teachers - making millions off the stock market, the fervor to buy stocks grew exponentially.

Although an increasing number of people wanted to buy stocks, not everyone had the money to do so. 

Individual sectors of the market can have explosive boom periods of high, often unsustainable growth, such as the boom in the dot com sector during the late 1990s.

The opposite of a boom period is known as a bust, and many sectors of the market traditionally have boom and bust cycles. Substantial profits can be made during a boom cycle of the market, but, similarly, fortunes can be lost when the boom ends and the prices of stocks fall.

When to buy stocks either during "Bullish" or "Bearish"

While many investors fall into one of the two categories, and tend to follow their pattern of investing, regardless of actual market conditions, bull and bear markets go in cycles.

Eventually, every bull market phase will peak, and reach a market top or a stock-market bubble. This peak is not usually a dramatic event. People are naturally unaware at the time that the market has reached the highest point it will for a few years.

A decline then follows, beginning a bear market phase. The decline is usually gradual at first and then gains momentum. A market bottom is when the market reaches it's lowest point. This signals the end the downturn, and precedes the beginning of an upward moving trend or new bull market phase.

It is very difficult to identify the bottom, or end of the downturn, while it is occurring. An upturn following a decline is often short-lived, followed by a resumed declining of prices. This can bring losses for an investor who purchases shares during a "false" market bottom, and must then sell them at an even lower price due to insufficient liquidity.

Some people believe that recognizing bull and bear markets is a key way to make money on stock trading and investing. The basic principle for profiting from trading is to buy low and sell high. One way to do this is to buy stocks in a bear market when the prices are low and sell stocks in a bull market when the prices are high. However, recognizing the best times to buy and sell is not that much easy.

It's tough if not impossible to predict consistently when the trends in the market will change. Part of the difficulty is that psychological effects and speculation can sometimes play a large (if not dominant) role in the markets.

Many investors sell in a bear market, either because they become too emotional about trading and don’t want to risk bigger losses, or they don’t have the liquidity to hold onto their investments while awaiting a market reversal.

If a large number of investors are fearful and pessimistic during a bear market, they are likely to contribute to further declines by “panic selling.”

Conversely, the optimism and increased trading that occurs during a bull market serves to boost investor confidence. The increased liquidity results in higher volumes of trading, further raising the prices of stocks.

Ways to Profit in Bull Markets

A bull market occurs when security prices rise faster than the overall average rate. These market types are accompanied by economic growth periods and optimism among investors.

New investors often assume that they need to avoid investing during bear markets, and invest heavily during bull markets. This is not the case. Experienced investors know that you need to be able to invest in any sort of market condition, provided that you do so wisely. Each investor has a different strategy for dealing with a bull market or bearish markets. 

Many investors try to take advantage of bull markets by buying stocks as soon as the market gets bullish, and then starting to sell when prices seem to have reached their peak. The difficulty, of course, is that it is almost impossible to tell when the trend is beginning and when it will peak. In general, investors can take more chances with the market during a bullish phase. Since overall prices will rise, the chances of making a profit are good.

Ways to Profit in Bear Markets

A bear market is defined as a drop of 20% or more in a market average over a one-year period, measured from the closing low to the closing high. Generally, these market types occur during economic recessions or depressions, when pessimism prevails. But amidst the rubble lie opportunities to make money for those who know how to use the right tools.

In bearish market conditions, prices are falling and the possibility of loss is pretty good. What is worse, it is not always possible to tell when bearish conditions will end. Therefore, if you invest during such market conditions, you may have to suffer some losses before bullish times return and you're able to realize a profit. For this reason, many investors decide on short selling or fixed income securities and other more conservative types of investment. 

Defensive stocks are another good option that remain stable during bearish conditions. On the other hand, some investors see bearish market conditions as an ideal time to invest in more stocks. Since many people are selling off their stocks -- including valuable blue-chip stocks -- at low prices, it is possible to set up long-term investments that will prove valuable during bullish times.

While every investor loves to see the upswing in prices during a bull market, the wise investor will be able to handle a bear market as well. Whether you are just beginning to invest or are an experienced investor, learning to deal with various market conditions you neen not panic but decide patiently on investment.

The best way to make money, regardless of the cycles of bull and bear markets, is to create a varied portfolio of investments, and to maintain sufficient liquidity to ride out the tough periods without needing to resort to panic selling.

What is "De-Listing" of Stocks

Delisting is the process by which a company's shares are taken off the stock exchange and trading in its shares stops thereafter. According to a Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) directive, at least 25 per cent equity shares of a listed company must be held by the public. A company that wishes to delist must buy back shares from the public. This buyback is done through an open offer. Promoters must acquire at least 90 per cent stake to delist. The outstanding shares are purchased in the open market at a fixed price.

A delisted stock is no longer traded on a major stock exchange. Corporations sometimes voluntarily withdraw their stocks; in other cases, government regulators force a stock to delist. Regardless of the reason, delisting a stock has consequences and, in some rare cases, benefits.

Delisting can happen on two situations and can be done by the stock exchange or by the company itself. If it is done by the stock exchange then it is called compulsory delisting and if it is done by the company itself it is called voluntary delisting.

In the case of compulsory delisting, the stock exchange might remove the shares of the company if it finds that there is a breach of, on the part of the company, the legal requirements of the stock exchange. This has got its own process.

In the case of voluntary delisting, the company voluntarily would decide to go for delisting and remove its shares off the stock exchange. This is a lengthy process because the interests of the shareholders are involved. The voluntary delisting requires the mandatory meeting of all regulations including approval from board members, providing an exit opportunity for all public shareholders at a price quoted by them, and in-principle approval from the stock exchange among others.

What is "Listing" of Stocks

All exchanges have initial listing requirements that companies must satisfy before they can be listed on a particular exchange. and traded there, but requirements vary by stock exchange:
Since an exchange makes money by charging commissions or fees on trades, most requirements are designed to ensure that a certain amount of trading will occur in the company’s shares. In most cases, larger companies have more trading activity, and so several requirements are related to ensure a minimum size. The most common requirements are a minimum market value, a minimum income and revenue, a minimum number of shares outstanding, and a minimum number of holders of public stock.

Although most stocks listed on an exchange are listed stocks for that exchange, an exchange can list the securities of any other exchange, if it so chooses. To increase pricing competition, the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 contains a provision referred to as unlisted trading privileges (UTP) that allows any exchange to list any securities listed on any other exchange.

•     Bombay Stock Exchange: Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) has requirements for a minimum market capitalization of Rs.250 Million and minimum public float equivalent to Rs.100 Million.

•     London Stock Exchange: The main market of the London Stock Exchange has requirements for a minimum market capitalization (£700,000), three years of audited financial statements, minimum public float (25 per cent) and sufficient working capital for at least 12 months from the date of listing.

•     NASDAQ Stock Exchange: To be listed on the NASDAQ a company must have issued at least 1.25 million shares of stock worth at least $70 million and must have earned more than $11 million over the last three years.

•     New York Stock Exchange: To be listed on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) a company must have issued at least a million shares of stock worth $100 million and must have earned more than $10 million over

Only members of an exchange may list and execute trades at the exchange. When a retail investor wants to trade an exchange-listed stock, he must go to a broker. If the broker is a member of the exchange where the stock is listed, then she can send her client’s order to a representative of her firm, who will then execute the trade. However, if her firm is not a member, then she will have to send the order to another broker or dealer who is a member of the exchange or to their representative at the exchange.

Buy or sell limit orders are entered into the system and crossed with matching orders. If there are no matching orders, then they are queued, first by price, then by date, as a bid or offer price. The list of all bids and offers constitutes the order book, and the current market quote is the best bid and offer.